The branch of Discourse Analysis
1.
Psychoanalysis
(Sigmund Freud)
Psychoanalysis was founded by Sigmund Freud (1856-1939). Freud believed that people
could be cured by making conscious their unconscious thoughts and motivations, thus gaining insight.
The aim of psychoanalysis therapy is to release repressed emotions and
experiences, i.e. make the unconscious conscious. Psychoanalysis is commonly
used to treat depression and anxiety disorders. It is only having a cathartic
(i.e. healing) experience can the person be helped and "cured".In
psychoanalysis (therapy) Freud would have a patient lie on a couch to relax,
and he would sit behind them taking notes while they told him about their
dreams and childhood memories. Psychoanalysis would be a lengthy process,
involving many sessions with the psychoanalyst. Due to the nature of defense mechanisms and the inaccessibility of the
deterministic forces operating in the unconscious, psychoanalysis in its
classic form is a lengthy process often involving 2 to 5 sessions per week for
several years.
The psychoanalyst uses various
techniques as encouragement for the client to develop insights into their
behavior and the meanings of symptoms, including ink blots, parapraxes, free
association, interpretation (including dream analysis), resistance analysis and
transference analysis.
1) Rorschach ink blots
Due to the nature of defense mechanisms and the inaccessibility of the
deterministic forces operating in the unconscious, the ink blot itself doesn't
mean anything, it's ambiguous (i.e. unclear). It is what you read into it that
is important. Different people will see different things depending on what
unconscious connections they make.The ink blot is known as a projective test as
the patient 'projects' information from their unconscious mind to interpret the
ink blot.
2) Freudian Slip
Unconscious
thoughts and feelings can transfer to the conscious mind in the form of
parapraxes, popularly known as Freudian slips or slips of the tongue. We reveal
what is really on our mind by saying something we didn't mean to. For example,
a nutritionist giving a lecture intended to say we should always demand the
best in bread, but instead said bed. Another example is where a person may call
a friend's new partner by the name of a previous one, whom we liked better.
Freud believed that slips of the tongue provided an insight into the
unconscious mind and that there were no accidents, every behavior (including
slips of the tongue) was significant (i.e. all behavior is determined).
3) Free Association
A simple technique of psychodynamic
therapy is free association in which a patient talks of whatever comes into
their mind. This technique involves a therapist reading a list of words
(e.g. mother, childhood etc.) and the patient immediately responds with the
first word that comes to mind. It is hoped that fragments of repressed
memories will emerge in the course of free association.
Sigmund Freud’s Biography
On May 6th
1856 Sigmund Freud was born in Moravian Hamlet of Freiberg, which today is
Pribor in the Czech Republic . His name would later be changed to Sigmund when
he was twenty-two years old (Schultz, 2004). Freud was born into a
wealthy Jewish family. He was the first born of six children and had two
older brothers from Freud’s fathers previous marriage.Sigmund Freud was the
first to use the term psychoanalysis in 1896. From that point his
theories blossomed. Freud did not invent the terms unconscious, conscious,
or conscience; however, he was pivotal in making them popular. Freud
accomplished this through his theory of psychological reality: id, ego,
and superego. Freud throughout his
life presented many books that are still respected today. In 1895, Freud along
with his mentor Joseph Breuer, published Studies on Hysteria this book
for Freud was the start into looking into psychoanalysis (Schultz, 2004). In
1900, Freud published The Interpretation of Dreams which initially sold
poorly but had a major impact on his popularity (Simon, 1999). In it
Freud included his concept of dream analysis, theory of the mind and other
information about himself and the history of Vienna were he spent much of his
life. In 1901, Freud published another book called Psychopathology of
Everyday Life in which he describes his idea of the “Freudian slip” and
about forgetfulness (Schultz, 2004). In 1905, Freud published Three
Essays on the Theory of Sexuality which were based on lectures that he
presented. Finally, one other important book was The Ego and the Id
which was published in 1923 in which he introduced his structural theory and
concepts of the id, ego, and superego.
2.Semiotics
(Charles W. Morris
Semiotics (also called semiotic
studies; not to be confused with the Saussurean tradition called semiology which is a part of
semiotics) is the study of meaning-making,
the study of sign processes and meaningful communication.[1]
This includes the study of signs and sign
processes (semiosis), indication, designation, likeness, analogy,
allegory,
metonymy,
metaphor,
symbolism,
signification,
and communication.Semiotics is closely related to the field of linguistics,
which, for its part, studies the structure and meaning of language
more specifically. The semiotic tradition explores the study of signs and
symbols as a significant part of communications. As different from linguistics,
however, semiotics also studies non-linguistic sign systems.
Charles W.
Morris followed Peirce in using the term "semiotic" and in
extending the discipline beyond human communication to animal learning and use
of signals. Semioticians classify signs or sign systems in relation to the way
they are transmitted (see modality). This process of carrying
meaning depends on the use of codes that may be the individual sounds or
letters that humans use to form words, the body movements they make to show
attitude or emotion, or even something as general as the clothes they wear. To coin
a word to refer to a thing (see lexical words), the community
must agree on a simple meaning (a denotative meaning) within their language,
but that word can transmit that meaning only within the language's grammatical
structures and codes (see syntax and semantics). Codes also represent the values of the culture,
and are able to add new shades of connotation to every aspect of life.
To
explain the relationship between semiotics and communication studies, communication
is defined as the process of transferring data and-or meaning from a source to
a receiver. Hence, communication theorists construct models based on codes,
media, and contexts to explain the biology,
psychology,
and mechanics
involved. Both disciplines recognize that the technical process cannot be separated
from the fact that the receiver must decode the data, i.e., be able to distinguish
the data as salient, and make meaning out of it. This
implies that there is a necessary overlap between semiotics and communication.
Biography’s Charles W. Morris
Charles
William Morris (May 23, 1901 – January 15, 1979) was
an American semiotician
and philosopher.
Morris briefly attended the University of Wisconsin, and later studied
engineering and psychology at Northwestern University, where he
graduated with a B.S. in 1922. That same year, he entered the University of Chicago where he became a
doctoral student in philosophy under the direction of George Herbert Mead. Morris completed his
dissertation on a symbolic theory of mind and received a Ph.D. from the
University of Chicago in 1925. Morris was an instructor of
philosophy for six years from 1925 to 1931 at Rice
University in Houston, Texas.[1]
After leaving Rice, he was associate professor of philosophy at the University of Chicago from 1931 to 1947.
Morris became a lecturing professor at Chicago in 1948, occupying the position
until 1958 when he received an offer for a special appointment as a Research
Professor at the University of Florida, where he remained
until his death.
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