METONYMY AND SYNECDOTE

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Synecdoche: Parts and Wholes

Let's talk about synecdoche and metonymy, two very particular types of metaphorical expression in which one word is representative for another word or concept. But before we start, let me ask you: Have you ever checked out someone's wheels? Put on a Band-Aid after getting a cut? Cheered on New York during a football game? Even if you haven't, I bet you perfectly understand what each of those sentences mean: That when I say 'wheels' I mean 'car,' when I say 'Band-Aid' I mean an adhesive bandage and when I say 'New York,' I mean whichever team from New York happens to be playing.

These are all examples of synecdoche. In synecdoche, a part of something is used to refer to the whole entity, or a whole entity is used to refer to part of something. Some examples? This happens every time someone refers to 'Americans' when what they really mean is the citizens of the United States of America. 'Americans' is a synecdoche for the USA and does not include every member of the entire continents of North or South America (sorry, Canada!). Another synecdoche in everyday usage is when someone asks for your number. You know what they are really asking you for is your phone number and not just a collection of random digits. Here are a couple more examples:

• 'Hey man, nice threads.' Threads, here, refers to clothes (part of something referring to the whole).
• 'The stage was nearly set up, but the conductor didn't have enough space for the strings.' Here, 'strings' is synecdoche for a single unit: the 'string section.'

Synecdoche: Materials and Containers

Sometimes the material an item is made of can be used as synecdoche in place of the actual object. When a sword is referred to as 'steel,' for instance, this is synecdoche, since the entire sword is probably not made of steel. Moreover, the sword could be made of another metal altogether, but the historical connection between 'steel' and 'sword' is powerful enough to make it synecdoche nonetheless.

Likewise, if someone asks, 'Are you wearing Kevlar?' you might know from watching enough action movies that this is synecdoche for a bulletproof vest, while using 'plastic' at the grocery store means putting the bill on your credit card because credit cards are made of plastic. As with materials, containers can sometimes come to refer to the objects they contain - another form of synecdoche. As in, 'Nazie drank the cup,' which doesn't literally mean that Nazie swallowed a small cup, but rather that she drank the contents of the cup. Likewise, 'The bartender is giving away the bar,' means that he or she is giving out too many free drinks, which is the stuff the bar contains.

Metonymy

Metonymy is when a thing refers to something else that it's closely associated with, but unlike synecdoche, the part does not have to refer to the whole, or vice versa. Remember when we talked about how 'wheels' was synecdoche for 'car?' Here's the metonym version of the same:

'It was the town's mechanic, not the rich lawyer, who had the nicest ride.'

'Ride' here is a metonym for 'car' because riding is something you do in an automobile, but the 'ride' is not a part of the automobile and therefore does not qualify as synecdoche.

Here's another example: If someone asks you how many plates there are going to be at dinner, what they're really asking you is how many guests are going to show up. Plates are intimately associated with the act of eating, which is what dinner guests typically do, and therefore 'plates' is metonymic for 'dinner guests.' Similarly, if someone tells you 'You have nice kicks,' that's a metonym for shoes, since kicking is something you do with your feet and you wear shoes on your feet. It's not parts referring to wholes (that's synecdoche) but contextual associations linking one word to its meaning in conversation or writing. Technically, synecdoche is actually a very specific kind of metonymy, but synecdoche is a little easier to wrap your head around, and other types of metonymy don't get their own specific categories.

A Special Comparison

In metonymy, a large or abstract object is described by an object with which the larger or abstract object is affiliated. While these objects being compared are closely associated, they are not the same. For example, “The White House” is an object used to describe the entire executive branch of the United States government. The statement, “The White House released a new policy on terrorism,” is metonymy because the White House is a building and cannot physically state a policy.

Examples of Metonymy

This statement includes two examples of metonymy: “The pen is mightier than the sword.” In the oft-quoted phrase, "the pen" refers to the the written word, which, according to the statement, is a more effective and powerful instrument of change than "the sword," which represents military or physical force. When students say they study “Shakespeare,” they generally do not refer to a study of the man himself, but of his literary works. When we use the term “the press,” we are referring to journalists, not to the actual printing press that produces their work.

Part of a Whole

All poodles are dogs, but not all dogs are poodles. All synecdoche is metonymy, but not vice versa. Synecdoche is a special form of metonymy in which the object or idea used to describe something larger is actually a part or a component of the larger idea. This device may also be used when a smaller group is used to reference a larger group with which it is a part. “Hollywood” refers to the entire American movie making industry, not the suburb that was named “Hollywood.”

Examples of Synecdoche

“I got a new set of wheels” usually means, “I bought a new car,” of which wheels are a part. “Boots” can refer to “soldiers,” and “sails” to an entire ship. A specific brand of a product often comes to be used to describe a larger category. “Coke” is sometimes used to describe all colas, “Band-Aid” to describe any small adhesive bandage, and "Kleenex” to refer to any facial tissue. In "The Face that Launched a Thousand Ships," poet Christopher Marlowe writes, "Was this the face that launched a thousand ships, / And burnt the topless towers of Ilium?" The entire Greek military is represented by a part, "a thousand ships," while "the towers" represent the entire city and culture of Troy, and Helen's "face" is a part of her body that refers to her physical beauty as a whole.

REFERENCES: http://classroom.synonym.com/examples-metonymy-synecdoche-22055.html

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COLLOCATION

Collocation is a familiar grouping of words, especially words that habitually appear together and thereby convey meaning by association.[1] In corpus linguistics, collocation defines a sequence of words or terms that co-occur more often than would be expected by chance. In phraseology, collocation is a sub-type of phraseme. An example of a phraseological collocation, as propounded by Michael Halliday,[2] is the expression strong tea. While the same meaning could be conveyed by the roughly equivalent *powerful tea, this expression is considered incorrect by English speakers. Conversely, the corresponding expression for computer, powerful computers is preferred over *strong computers. Phraseological collocations should not be confused with idioms, where meaning is derived, whereas collocations are mostly compositional.

EXAMPLE OF COLLOCATION

open an account -> Would you like to open an account at our bank?
forgive a debt -> Do you think the bank would forgive a debt?
land a deal -> We landed a deal worth $3 million.
receive a discount -> If you buy three computers you'll receive a discount.

You can find more collocation examples and exercises to practice collocations by using the categories below. 

Verb Collocations

These sheets provide a matching game with some of the most common verb + noun collocations used in everyday situations. Here are some examples of the types of verb collocations you will learn:

to feel free
to come prepared
to save time
to find a replacement
to make progress
to do the washing up
etc.

·         Verb Collocations with Take, Have and Break

·         Verb Collocations with Catch, Pay and Keep

·         Verb Collocations with Save, Find and Go

·         Verb Collocations with Come, Get and Feel

·         Verb Collocations with Miss, Get, Do and Make

Business Collocations

These collocation sheets provide common collocations used in business and work settings. There are a number of forms including adjectives, nouns and other verbs that combine with these key words. Each sheet includes a number of collocation examples to illustrate usage. Here are some of the collocation examples you will find on these pages:

to key in a PIN
to deposit a check
hard-earned money
protection money
counterfeit money
etc.

Common Expressions

Collocations are often used as short expressions to describe how someone feels about a situation. In this case, collocations can be used in the adjective form, or also as emphatic expressions using an intensifier and a verb. Here are a few examples using some of these collocation examples:

We'd like to positively encourage you to buy this stock.
I deeply regret the loss of your loved one.
Tom's in an utter fury over the misunderstanding with his wife.
He went to a great length to explain the situation.

REFERENCES

http://esl.about.com/od/engilshvocabulary/a/collocations.htm

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homonyms, homophones, homograph

homophones (sound-alike words), and homographs and have fun all at the same time! Resources include printable worksheets, videos, online games, and various teaching strategies for Kindergarten through High School. Here you can customize a unique lesson to illustrate homonyms vs homophones vs homographs.

. For clarity, I've brought them all together on one page. It makes it easier to learn the difference among the three types of words using the definitions and homonyms, homophones and homographs examples below.

Homonyms	Homophones	Homographs
Multiple meaning words	Words that sound alike	Same spelling, different pronunciation, different meanings
the spruce tree...  to spruce up...	addition for math  edition of a book	desert = abandon  desert = area of land
suit yourself...  wore a suit...	I want to go  I like it too  One plus one is two	bass = fish  bass = instrument
weigh on the scale...  scale the wall...	capitol building  state capital	close = nearby  close = to shut
the price is fair...  go to the fair...	pick a flower  bake with flour	bow = to bend down  bow = ribbon

Homonyms

Homonyms, or multiple meaning words, are words that share the same spelling and the same pronunciation but have different meanings. For example, bear.

·         A bear (the animal) can bear (tolerate) very cold temperatures.

·         The driver turned left (opposite of right) and left (departed from) the main road.

Homophones, also known as sound-alike words, are words that are pronounced identically although they have different meanings and often have different spellings as well. These words are a very common source of confusion when writing. Common examples of sets of homophones include: to, too, and two; they're and their; bee and be; sun and son; which and witch; and plain and plane. VocabularySpellingCity is a particularly useful tool for learning to correctly use and spell the soundalike words.

Homographs

Homographs are words that are spelled the same, but have different meanings and are often pronounced differently as well. Some examples of homographs are:

·         bass as in fish vs bass as in music

·         bow as in arrow vs bow as in bending or taking a bow at the end of a performance

·         close as in next to vs close as in shut the door

·         desert as in dry climate vs desert as in leaving alone.

Currently, VocabularySpellingCity cannot distinguish between homographs, as we are unable to have two pronounciations for the exact same word. We are looking for possibilities in the future.

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Polysemy

Polysemy is words which have multiple meaning that are related conceptually or historically. You can find it on the dictionary, you will find words with more than one definition. For example ; guard, music and bear

Bear is polysemous with meanings ‘to tolerant’, to carry’, to support’, bear (animals).

Of course, it is possible for 2 forms to be distinguished via homonymy and for one of the form also to have various uses via polysemy. The word date (= a thing we can eat), and date (= a point in time) are homonyms. However, the point in time’ kind of date is polysemous in terms of a particular day and month (= on a letter), an arranged meeting time (= an appointment), a social meeting (= with someone we like), and even a person (=that person we like).

We adopt as a working hypothesis the view that almost every word is more or less polysemous, with senses linked to a prototype by a set of relational semantic principles which incorporate a greater or lesser amount of flexibility. We follow the now common practice in polysemy research and regard polysemy as a graded phenomenon . . ., where contrastive polysemy deals with homonyms such as match (a small stick with a tip which ignites when scraped on a rough surface) and match (contest in a game or sport), whereas complementary polysemy deals with interrelated semantic aspects of a word, such as, in the case ofrecord, for example, the physical object and the music.

If we aren’t sure whether different uses of a single word are examples of homonymy or polsemy, we can check in a dictionary. If the word has multiple meanings, it is polysemous, then there will be a single entry, with a numbered list of the different meanings of that word. If two word are treated as homonyms , they will typically have two separate entries 

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PROVERB

Well guys, now i wanna explain for you about proverbs. As we know that, proverb in Indonesian the name is peribahasa. Generally. They used proverb when study in the school, give advice, and other conditions. I hope my posted very useful. thanks

Proverbs are popularly defined as short expressions of popular wisdom. Efforts to improve on the popular definition have not led to a more precise definition. The wisdom is in the form of a general observation about the world or a bit of advice, sometimes more nearly an attitude toward a situation. A proverb is a simple, which expresses a truth, based on common sense or the practical experience of humanity. A proverb that describes a basic rule of conduct may also be known as a maxim. If a proverb is distinguished by particularly good phrasing, it may be known as an aphorism.
Proverbs are often borrowed from similar languages and cultures, and sometimes come down to the present through more than one language. Both the Bible  and medieval Latin have played a considerable role in distributing proverbs across Europe, although almost every culture has examples of its own.

Dalam bahasa Inggris ada juga peribahasa (proverbs) dan kata-kata bijak (wise word), berikut adalah contohnya :

Peribahasa (Proverbs) :

1. Better late than never.

    (Lebih baik terlambat daripada tidak sama sekali.)

2. Bending without breaking.
    (Mengalah bukan berarti kalah.)

3. A good book is a great friend.

    (Buku yang bermanfaat merupakan teman yang baik.)

4. Out of sight near by heart.

    (Jauh di mata dekat di hati.)

5. No one too old to learn.

    (Belajar tidak memandang usia.)

6. Action speak louder than words.

    (banyak bekerja sedikit bicara.)

7. Desperate people has no standpoint.

    (Orang yang putus asa tidak mempunyai pendirian.)

8. Full coin, full case.

    (Banyak uang banyak masalah.)

9. Think first, than action.

    (Berfikir matang terlebih dahulu baru bertindak.)

10. United we stand, divided we fall.

      (Bersatu kita teguh bercerai kita runtuh.)

Reference: http://www.kursusmudahbahasainggris.com/2013/07/contoh-peribahasa-proverbs-dalam-bahasa.html#ixzz4Ad31Qlmu

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IDIOM

Definition

            Idioms exist in every language. An idiom is a word or phrase that is not taken literally, like “bought the farm” has nothing to do with purchasing real estate, but refers to dying. Idiom also refers to a dialect or jargon of a group of people, either in a certain region or a group with common interests, like in science, music, art, or business. An idiom is an expression whose meaning is different from the meaning of its constituent words. Knowledge of idioms is an important part of comprehension of the English language.

 Functions of Idioms

Learning a Language with Idioms

            Because of idioms, learning a language can be complicated. After you can conjugate verbs, and know a lot of words, you may still have difficulty speaking the language with native users. This is partly due to the use of idioms and would also depend of which region of a country you were in. Idiom usage is not just regional, but also varies according to people’s interests and social groups. The best way to pick up on the meaning of certain idioms would be to converse with people and ask them for a clarification of the idiom if you are not clear about the idiom they used. There are also sites on the Internet which will help explain the meaning of idioms.

Examples

            1. Shakespeare's Idioms.

"Shakespeare is credited with coining more than 2,000 words, infusing thousands more existing ones with electrifying new meanings and forging idioms that would last for centuries. 'A fool's paradise,' 'at one fell swoop,' 'heart's content,' 'in a pickle,' 'send him packing,' 'too much of a good thing,' 'the game is up,' 'good riddance,' 'love is blind,' and 'a sorry sight,' to name a few." (David Wolman, Righting the Mother Tongue: From Olde English to Email, the Tangled Story of English Spelling. Harper, 2010)

            2. Common Idioms

Some idioms are used by most people that speak English; others are used by a more select group.

Common idioms that refer to people include:

·         A chip on your shoulder - means you think you know a lot

·         High as a kite - means you are drunk or on drugs

·         Sick as a dog - means you are very ill

Idioms that refer to your actions would be:

·         Rub someone the wrong way - meaning to annoy or bother

·         Jump the gun - would mean to be doing something early

·         Pay the piper - means you need to face the consequences of your actions

Some idioms use color words to convey other meanings. For example, there are several that use the word “blue:”

·         “The blues” can refer to both a style of music and feeling sad.

·         If something occurs rarely, it is said to happen “once in a blue moon”, because a blue moon is two full moons in one month, which doesn’t happen often.

·         “Out of the blue” means something happens that was unexpected.

            3. Idioms In the Arts

There are many idioms in the field of music.

·         If you “fine tune” something, you make small improvements to it.

·         “Changing your tune” means changing your mind.

·         If you are “whistling Dixie” or “whistling in the dark” you are overly positive about something.

·         If you try and make a decision too early without knowing all the facts, people may tell you that “it’s not over ‘till the fat lady sings.”

reference:

Senin, 03 Maret 2014

contoh isi makalah tentang IDIOMS bahasa Inggris

CHAPTER II
DISCUSSION

A. Definition

            Idioms exist in every language. An idiom is a word or phrase that is not taken literally, like “bought the farm” has nothing to do with purchasing real estate, but refers to dying. Idiom also refers to a dialect or jargon of a group of people, either in a certain region or a group with common interests, like in science, music, art, or business. An idiom is an expression whose meaning is different from the meaning of its constituent words. Knowledge of idioms is an important part of comprehension of the English language.

B. Functions of Idioms

Learning a Language with Idioms

            Because of idioms, learning a language can be complicated. After you can conjugate verbs, and know a lot of words, you may still have difficulty speaking the language with native users. This is partly due to the use of idioms and would also depend of which region of a country you were in. Idiom usage is not just regional, but also varies according to people’s interests and social groups. The best way to pick up on the meaning of certain idioms would be to converse with people and ask them for a clarification of the idiom if you are not clear about the idiom they used. There are also sites on the Internet which will help explain the meaning of idioms.

            "People use idioms to make their language richer and more colorful and to convey subtle shades of meaning or intention. Idioms are used often to replace a literal word or expression, and many times the idiom better describes the full nuance of meaning. Idioms and idiomatic expressions can be more precise than the literal words, often using fewer words but saying more. For example, the expression it runs in the family is shorter and more succinct than saying that a physical or personality trait 'is fairly common throughout one's extended family and over a number of generations.'" (Gail Brenner, Webster's New World American Idioms Handbook. Webster's New World, 2003)

C. Levels of "Transparency"

            "Idioms vary in 'transparency': that is, whether their meaning can be derived from the literal meanings of the individual words. For example, make up [one's] mind is rather transparent in suggesting the meaning ‘reach a decision’, while kick the bucket is far from transparent in representing the meaning ‘die’. (Douglas Biber et al, Longman Student Grammar of Spoken and Written English. Pearson, 2002).

"The thought hit me that this was a pretty pathetic way to kick the bucket--being accidentally poisoned during a photo shoot, of all things--and I started weeping at the idiocy of it all." (Lara St. John)

D. Examples

            1. Shakespeare's Idioms.

"Shakespeare is credited with coining more than 2,000 words, infusing thousands more existing ones with electrifying new meanings and forging idioms that would last for centuries. 'A fool's paradise,' 'at one fell swoop,' 'heart's content,' 'in a pickle,' 'send him packing,' 'too much of a good thing,' 'the game is up,' 'good riddance,' 'love is blind,' and 'a sorry sight,' to name a few." (David Wolman, Righting the Mother Tongue: From Olde English to Email, the Tangled Story of English Spelling. Harper, 2010)

            2. Common Idioms

Some idioms are used by most people that speak English; others are used by a more select group.

Common idioms that refer to people include:

·         A chip on your shoulder - means you think you know a lot

·         High as a kite - means you are drunk or on drugs

·         Sick as a dog - means you are very ill

Idioms that refer to your actions would be:

·         Rub someone the wrong way - meaning to annoy or bother

·         Jump the gun - would mean to be doing something early

·         Pay the piper - means you need to face the consequences of your actions

Some idioms use color words to convey other meanings. For example, there are several that use the word “blue:”

·         “The blues” can refer to both a style of music and feeling sad.

·         If something occurs rarely, it is said to happen “once in a blue moon”, because a blue moon is two full moons in one month, which doesn’t happen often.

·         “Out of the blue” means something happens that was unexpected.

            3. Idioms In the Arts

There are many idioms in the field of music.

·         If you “fine tune” something, you make small improvements to it.

·         “Changing your tune” means changing your mind.

·         If you are “whistling Dixie” or “whistling in the dark” you are overly positive about something.

·         If you try and make a decision too early without knowing all the facts, people may tell you that “it’s not over ‘till the fat lady sings.”

Drama and dance have idioms too, like:

·         “Break a leg” means good luck.

·         If you are a “ham” you overact.

·         If you say, “it takes two to tango” you mean that more than one person is at fault or involved.

·         If you “tap dance” your way out of a sticky situation, then that implies that you get out of it in a clever way.

·         Being “in the spotlight” means you are the center of attention.

            Remember, a group of people with shared interests such as the arts or business will have their own idioms. As with all idioms it will be easier to understand the idioms if you concentrate on what is being said and ask questions about the meanings of the idioms.

            4. Top 10 Most Common Idioms in English

We’ve listed the 10 most common idioms in English and their actual meanings.

1. Piece of cake – No, when someone says that the assignment they just finished was a piece of cake, it does not mean that their professor gave them a red velvet cupcake for their midterm paper, what piece of cake actually means is that something is very easy to complete.

2. Costs an arm and a leg – It would be a strange world we lived in if buying that fancy shiny purse literally required us to chop off our body parts to give as tribute to the Louis Vuitton gods. When something costs an arm and a leg it actually means that something is very expensive.

3. Break a leg – Oh, look, another idiom about legs. You’re about to take your dreaded calculus final and before you head into your classroom your roommate texts you, “Break a Leg!”  Why, you think in your head, would he ever wish that upon me? I thought we were cool with each other. Well, your roommate surely doesn’t want your bones to break while walking to your seat in the exam room that’s for sure. Break a leg actually means good luck!

4. Hit the books – If you’re a student in an English speaking environment you’re probably going to be hearing this phrase a lot. Before you imagine students running into their campus library and punching, kicking and wrestling apart the complete works of Shakespeare, we would just like to say that hit the books actually means to study. There there, you can still punch books in your spare time if you want, we won’t judge you.

5. Let the cat out of the bag – Why would someone put their cat in a bag? What did the cat ever do to them? Our last idiom actually means to disclose a secret that was supposed to be kept, well, as a secret.  The next time someone lets the cat out of the bag do not immediately pick up your phone and call animal cruelty control.

6. Hit the nail on the head – This idiom has to do with doing or saying something that is precisely right. If you don’t understand this, just think about that sweet feeling you get when you swing a hammer at a nail and hit it perfectly.

7. When pigs fly – So, have you ever seen a pig fly before? Never? Me neither. This idiom basically means that something will never happen, like fat little pink mammals soaring toward the sun!

8. You can’t judge a book by its cover – How many awesome books do you think you’ve never read in your life just because the cover did not catch your eye? This idiom does not only apply to books however, but can be used for everything in general. Essentially it means that you should not decide upon something based just on outward appearances.

9.  Bite off more than you can chew – Imagine your waiter brings you the biggest juiciest hamburger from your favorite American restaurant. In your hunger, you grab it quickly and take a giant bite out of it. Unfortunately, the bite you’ve taken is too big, and you end up looking like an idiot trying to shove this bite down your throat while drinking water and trying not to choke. That is the most literal sense of the meaning, but in general it just means to attempt to take on a task that is too much for you to handle.

10. Scratch someone’s back – We all know how difficult it is to scratch that itch on your back that your hand just aren’t flexible enough to reach, so why would you want to scratch some random person’s smelly back? Because if you do, they may eventually be willing to scratch your own smelly back when you need it! What this idiom means is to help someone out with the assumption that they will return the favor in the future!  

REFFERENCES

http://grammar.about.(com)/od/il/g/idiomterm .htm

http://examples.yourdictionary. (com)/idiom .html

http://www. englishleap. (com)/other-resources/idioms

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